Detailed elaborations

3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the resilient island plan for Hulhumeedhoo is presented. This plan consists of ten components. In this chapter the components and the addressed problems are elaborated. Some shortly in text, some in photo and text and some extensive in a detailed designs. All elaborations together are the resilient island plan as presented earlier. These elaborations form the start for implementation.
The following components are elaborated in this chapter:

 

– Increase awareness on all type of issues
– Implementation of a waste management center.
– Production of compost
– Improvement of the built-up area
– Improvement of the farming area
– Improvement of the swamp edge
– Coastal protection
– Establishment of a tree nursery
– Development of a coral nursery and coral rehabilitation
– Governmental policies

 

They are presented in this order

 

3.2 Awareness programs
Problem elaboration
There are some problems related to the lack of awareness which are addressed with this component. They are described here

 

Illegal waste dump
Waste pollution is affecting the environment negatively, which results in ground water pollution, beach pollution and marine ecosystem pollution. Traditionally in the Maldives inhabitants burry it at the beach, the forest or the swamp or they dump it in the sea. But in the past this waste was mainly organic. In the last years the amount of plastic and around waste has increased dramatically. For the island of Hulhumeedhoo 900 tons of waste was produced in 2005, whereas 1800 tons was produced in 2010 (UNEP, 2006 and Government of Maldives, 2010). This inorganic waste can not decompose and harm the environment. But inhabitants still dump their waste at the beach, the ocean, the forest or the swamp.

 

Over-exploitation of trees
Trees are used for many things, but mainly fuel wood and timber. The growing population is demanding more wood. At the same time trees are very important for controlling soil quality and moisture, as an erosion protection at the coast, and to create a pleasant micro-climate in the village. Cutting of too much trees results in huge problems like soil degradation, flooding, erosion and dust.

 

Illegal extraction of sand and coral gravel
The demands of sand are high and sand boats take a lot of sand from the lagoon. At the same time the beaches and coast of the islands are eroding. Normally sand is replacing this erosion by sedimentation, but when there is too much sand extraction there won’t be sand for sedimentation.

 

Creation of mosquito breeding places
Mosquitoes are spreading many diseases like dengue and malaria. Most of the people think that the mosquitoes are breeding in the swamp, but there are fishes and dragonflies eating the larva. Mosquitoes are breeding in the built area where people create breeding places themselves, like in the gutters, water tanks, open wells, buckets and other places where water is standing.

 

Drug addiction
Lack of jobs and opportunities for youth results in drug addiction on the island of Hulhumeedhoo. Training for these guys is needed.

 

Increased robbery
Foreign workers and drug addicts need money for their living. Instead of working they steal from houses and farms. To help them these people need a proper source of income and people must be aware of how to protect against robbery.

 

This uncovered well is excellent mosquito breeding water. It should be covered to avoid this.

 

Solution elaboration
A few ideas of awareness programs are elaborated.

Workshops

Evening workshops or one day workshops, comparable with the resilient island workshop, can be helpful to create awareness and understanding of problems. Through games and discussions insight can be given to a large group of people about environmental and climate problems. For example a workshop on home compost making, obligatory for one member of each household, can dramatically decrease waste production and increase soil fertility. Target groups can be assigned like farmers, school teachers or school leavers. The workshops can be organized by either NGOs, the farmers’ cooperation or the local government.

 

Vocational training programs
Jobless people, school drop-outs and drug addicts can do a vocational training to learn skills to earn money. This can be in the commercial sector like construction, carpentry or handicraft, but also in the public sector like for the waste management center. In this way the drug and jobless related troubles will decrease and environmental problems can be solved. The drawback is that for vocational training and jobs in the public sector governmental investments are needed.

 

An example of this is the establishment of a rock melon greenhouse on the island of Hulhumeedhoo. The Meedhoo Friendship Chain has initiated with investments of the United Nations Development Bank a hydroponic auto pot system that produces a steady yield of rock melons and provides jobs to at least 20 people.

 

Leaflets
Some participants of the resilient island workshop had the idea to make leaflets with information about the environment. When spread door to door all inhabitants get insight in environmental problems and how to avoid them.

 

Community action days
Community actions days are very cheap and easy to organize days that can involve a lot of people. Actions can be very simple like the planting of trees, collection of waste or covering mosquito breeding places. But also larger actions can be done, like digging of road drainage, improvement of farm land and growing of trees. For success of the action the invitation of important governors and business people is necessary as well as the cooperation with the schools to incorporate children. Every NGO can be responsible for organizing two actions days a year.

 

In this way a generation that is beneficial to the community can be created.

 

 

 

The recently opened autopot system shows that initiatives of local NGOs can be successful.

 

 

Awareness leaflet made by action group members

 

 

3.3 Waste management centre
Problem elaboration
Conversations and discussions with the Meedhoo island office and inhabitants have clarified the following problems related to waste.

 

There is no money available for waste management. Therefore the two waste centres, constructed after the 2004 tsunami, are already damaged and out of use. There is also no money available for waste collection.

 

The current main waste dump at the administrative boarder of Hulhudhoo and Meedhoo is at the wrong location. It is located far away from a harbour or resort which makes it costly to export waste from the island in future or cooperate with resorts. When waste is burned the smoke is affecting the village or the beach, depending on the two main wind directions. Third the location is at the edge of the swamp, where rainwater is infiltrating. This means that during rain contaminated water is floating to the swamp where it is mixed with the ground water. This contaminated groundwater again is used for farming and village.

 

Finally inhabitants produce more and more waste and are not recycling anything.

 

Solution elaboration
The waste management center should be relocated to the harbor of Meedhoo and the former waste center in Hulhudhoo. These two locations are close to the harbors which makes disposal possible. The locations are also close to either Herathera or to the proposed resort on Hera. When waste is burned on the new areas smoke won’t affect villages or farmland. Finally the waste cannot harm fragile ecosystems or pollute ground water. The relocation of the waste management centre is the first step in waste disposal.

 

Awareness can be increased with help of the awareness programs described earlier.
Waste can be collected with a fee or inhabitants are obliged to bring the waste to the waste management center for free. There the waste can be separated and exported from the island. Cooperation with the waste management center in Hithadhoo can benefit waste disposal since costs will go down. It is also beneficial to separate waste at households. For example organic waste can be reused to make compost and plastic bottles can be used to grow seedlings.

 

Cans disposal at Herathera resort.

 

 

 

3.4 Compost production

Problem elaboration
Poor soil for food production
The unlithified alkaline soil is very poor in nutrients. To make it fertile for farming they have to use a lot of artificial fertilizer. Farmers spend up to 6000 Rufiyaa per month on this fertilizer.

Burning of organic waste
Normally inhabitants sweep their garden and street daily to remove dead plant materials. They also produce organic waste from food and kitchen garden. All this waste is burned in the garden or dumped at the forest or waste dump. But these materials can be used to produce compost to enrich the soil either in home gardens or at the farmland.

Solution elaboration
Production of compost in home gardens
This is small scale compost making. Every household can produce a small amount of compost for their own use. This decreases waste production and improves soil for home gardening. Training on how to make compost can be organized through a workshop. This is described in the section about awareness.

Production of compost at farmland
At this moment farmers use artificial fertilizer to improve the soil quality. However the use of organic

 

 

Burning of waste in backgardens

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A box to make compost at a farm in Hulhumeedhoo.

 

compost can reduce the amount of artificial fertilizer and safe money as well as the environment. One shredder can be bought for all farmers together to shred organic materials to improve compost speed. Inhabitants can bring their organic waste to the waste center. There it is collected and transported to the farmland. More about the production of compost at farmlands can be found in the section ‘improvement of the farming area’.

 

Resorts as example

Resorts are excellent examples of how compost can be used to produce food. Most resorts have a sewerage system that dries the heavy sludge in dry sludge. When it is pressed, fully dried and bacterial free it doesn’t smell and is an excellent organic fertilizer. Resorts use it in their tree nursery, kitchen garden and on flower beds throughout the resort.

 

There are some eco-friendly resorts. One chain of eco-friendly resorts is the Soneva Six Sense resorts. They experimented over fifteen years with compost and mulching and they can now produce 1/3 of their required food in a garden of half a hectare. They have reduced the pH of the alkaline soil from pH 10 to pH 6.5 and created a rich soil life with high moisture content. Guests can have an exclusive diner in a special designed restaurant in the middle of the garden to experience the freshness of their diner. These examples show that with smart use of compost, dry sludge and mulching it is possible to produce great amounts of food.

 

 

Kitchen garden at the Soneva Six Sense resort (Permaculture Maldives)

 

3.5 Improvement of the built-up area

Problem elaboration
On the island of Hulhumeedhoo there can be found different streets and public places. Streets are generally straight and either north-south or east-west oriented. The main street, the bodu magu, is north south oriented, with 11 meters the widest and the only street with trees in the middle.

 

The pavement of roads consists of compressed coral gravel and sand. During heavy rain infiltration of water is blocked resulting in puddles, mud and flooding. Every now and then roads are repaired to remove pot-holes. During dry periods the roads are dusty and sometimes they are watered to prevent the dust. The absence of trees in most streets and the garden walls result in very warm conditions. This is especially true for the east-west oriented streets which do not catch shadow from the garden trees. The appearan ce of streets was different in the past, as described by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century. At that time the streets were swept clean and were shaded by palm trees, so the pedestrians felt like they were in a garden (Husain, 1976).

 

Around public buildings the absence of trees causes warm conditions in the building. For example around schools trees are missing making it very warm during the day, resulting in high electricity costs for ventilation and air-conditioning. Furthermore dust from roads can damage expensive equipment at the hospital and island offices and is unclean for Mosques.

 

 

Puddles after forty millimetre of rain in one day.

 

 

From top to bottom: Bodu Magu, Cross road in Meedhoo, Coastal road to Herathera, Parallel road and other road.

 

 

strong>Solution elaboration
The improvement of the built-up area is elaborated in two local designs, one for street improvement and one for public area improvement. First a design for the hospital surrounding is presented as and example of the public area improvement. After the Hulhudhoo harbour cross-road is designed as example for streets.

 

3.5.1 Public buildings and space improvement
The current hospital has been built two years ago. It consists now of two hospital units, one playing area for children, one staff building with prayer room, rest room and powerhouse and the ambulance garage and storage. Two rainwater tanks are connected to the roof of the children’s playground.

 

In the front of the hospital an ornamental garden has been constructed containing flowering plants and shrubs. Four trees have been planted in total. Two in the front and two in the back in the proposed inner yard. Furthermore some bigger shrubs have been planted at the sides and the back of the hospital.  Also some banana trees are growing at the side of the hospital. The hospital is surrounded with a little wall of fifty centimeters high.

 

The planted vegetation is not and will not catch dust or provide a lot of shade in the future. Proper vegetation is needed to avoid dust damaging expensive medical equipment and to create shadow for an attractive micro-climate.

 

Future plans for the hospital are the construction of two more hospital units. Then there won’t be a lot of room left for the planting of big trees. Unfortunately there is also not enough space for trees in between the units. Third the existing shrubs at the right side of the hospital must be removed for the realization of these two extra units.

 

Based on conversations with the head of the hospital caretakers I suggest the planting of hedges at both sides and the back of the hospital and around the ramp for ambulances. These hedges catch dust and filter air to avoid dust and diseases affecting the hospital. Furthermore some more shadow trees must be planted at the open right side of the hospital and at the back. Medicinal species and mosquito chasing species are used in the hedges to be of extra benefit.

 

With this vegetation an attractive micro-climate and a bio-shield of dust catching and diseases preventing species is created. In the same way schools, governmental buildings, mosques and squares must be improved.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cross section A – A’. Cross sections showing the current situation of the hospital (above) and the proposed situation (below). Proposed are the hospital extension, the hedges and trees.

 

 

 

 

Map of the current hospital area with only four trees, some shrubs and an ornamental garden in the front.

 

 

 

Map of the proposed hospital area showing the proposed hedges and trees and the hospital extension.

 

 

 

Photo 1. of the current situation of the hospital seen from the north west corner. There is no thick vegetation that catches dust or diseases.

 

 

 

Photo impression 1. of the proposed situation of the hospital seen from the north west corner. Vegetation is added to create a nice micro climate and to catch dust. Species are medicinal and mosquito chasing.

 

 

3.5.2 Street improvement
The Hulhudhoo harbour cross road goes all the way from the Hulhudhoo harbour to the ocean on the other side of the island. It crosses the bodu magu. The street is 9 meters wide without vegetation. On one side there are electricity lines, around 1 meter below the surface. On the other side of the road are television, internet and telephone cables, between 0.5 and 1 meter below surface.

 

Based on the ideas of the workshop a street drainage system must be made. A street drainage can be made without huge investments or expensive materials. A drain of about 1/5 of the road width must be dug. In this way the compressed layer of pavement is broken and water can easily infiltrate. Consequently, based on the infiltration rate of unlithified sandy soil (Galagedara, 2008), a 24h rainfall of 36 mm can infiltrate. Additional with a depth of 25 cm, the drainage can function as a wadi during heavy rains, and can store 25 mm of rain water above the infiltration capacity. So 61 mm of daily rainfall can be stored with this drainage system. The drainage is positioned at least 0.5 meters from the garden wall to leave space for telephone and television wires. The materials that are excavated can be used to slope the street towards the drainage. With this drainage there won’t be much flooding during heavy rains.

 

The construction of a drainage gives the potential to plant vegetation in the streets. Vegetation will provide shadow so it improves micro-climate and keeps soil moisture to prevent dust. Furthermore vegetation catches rain and improves infiltration of rainwater. In this way it reduces flooding of streets. The table shows trees and shrubs that provide shade and can resist temporary water logging (Selvam, 2007), so excellent local trees for a street vegetation.

 

In the same way all streets in Hulhumeedhoo can be improved. Streets with drainage have less space for driving. This means that smaller roads become one way, comparable with streets in Male’. This won’t lead to problems, since the quantity of cars is quite low in Hulhumeedhoo.

 

Overview of trees suitable for a street drainage. All trees can resist a high soil moisture and provide shade (Selvam, 2007).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cross sections of the current situation of a cross road of 9 meters wide. During sunny periods there is almost no shadow whereas during rainy seasons water can not infiltrate fast enough and flooding is the result.

 

Cross section of a proposed situation where a drainage has been made and trees are planted in the drainage. During sunny periods a nice shady street is created and during rainy periods water can infiltrate easily.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Map of the current cross road towards Hulhudhoo harbour. A drainage and street vegetation is missing.

Map of the proposed cross road towards Hulhudhoo harbour, including street drainage and vegetation.

 

 

Photo 2. showing the current cross road to Hulhudhoo harbour. At this moment it is an unpleasant street without much shadow and a lot of dust

 

 

 

Photo impression 2. of the proposed cross road to Hulhudhoo harbour with on the left a drainage with vegetation.

 

 

 

3.6 Improvement of the farming area

Problem elaboration

Agriculture becomes increasingly attractive as a source of income since the trade relations between resorts and farmers improved and yield increases. More inhabitants start a farm and request farmland from the government. To create farmland and to avoid competition with trees, they are cut down or burned which is an intense pressure on the environment. Hot, dusty open farmland is the result, causing numerous problems. During the hot north east Monsoon daily watering of crops is needed to keep soil moisture whereas during the wet south west monsoon the soil is too wet and some crops get rotten. Furthermore the unlithified sandy soil is extremely poor. It is a necessity for farmers to use artificial fertilizers, up to 3000 kg per month. Salty spray was caught by trees before, but now it is affecting the crops.

 

strong>Solution elaboration

To tackle those problems an agroforestry system is needed. Elevitch and Wilkinson (2000) gave four definitions of agroforestry and in all four it involves (1) two or more species and at least one tree species; (2) two or more outputs; (3) a production cycle of at least one year; and (4) economic and/or environmental interaction between trees and other species. So it is the combination of trees and other crops for the benefit of both. Thaman (1990) gives a detailed overview of all functions of the agroforestry system. The positive spin-offs for Hulhumeedhoo are:

– Yield improvement with inter cropping

– Shade to control soil moisture and to protect shade crops

– Wind protection to catch salt spray

– Soil improvement through pruning and compost production

– Flood control by improving infiltration rate

– Moisture protecting by mulching, i.e. covering the soil with branches to avoid evaporation of ground water

– Timber and fuel wood production

– Production of compost to replace artificial fertilizer

 

The agroforestry system consists of three components; hedgerows at the property edges, hedges at the field edges and inter cropping of agricultural crops.

 

The hedgerows at the property edges consist of nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs. It requires around

 

 

 

Cross section B – B’ of the current situation at the agricultural fields

five meters of space. Ditches at the edge between the hedgerow and the field avoid roots extracting too much water and fertilizer and control soil moisture. It provides shade, wind protection, timber and fuel wood. Its most important function is the storage of nitrogen in branches and leaves. This can be used to make compost to increase soil fertility.

 

The hedges consist also of nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, combined with agricultural crops like drumstick. The hedges are pruned intensively and branches are used as mulch or for making compost. Furthermore it is used as windbreak and shadow. When the hedges are kept small they won’t compete with the crops and do not require that much space.

 

Inter cropping, the mix of crops for the benefit of both, can be used to increase yield. For example chili peppers need shade and can, especially when grown in baskets, be combined with species like papaya or drumstick. Guava for example requires a lot of space to have enough sunlight, but the bare soil in between the guava shrubs can be used to grow watermelon or pumpkin. Walls of the nursery or greenhouse can be used as a carrier for species like tomato, cucumber or rock melon.

 

In this way on one plot two or more crops can be grown and yield will increase.

A steady production of large quantities of compost can be derived with a three month system. Four units are needed of 2 cubic meters each. In the first unit organic waste and pruned branches are collected, which is turned every month to the next box. In the final box compost is ready for use.

In this way yield will increase, the use of artificial fertilizer will be reduced, saving money and a healthier environment for future development will be created.

 

Trees and shrubs that are nitrogen fixing and excellent agroforestry plants (Selvam, 2007)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cross section B – B’ of the proposed situation at the agricultural fields including agroforestry system

 

 

 

Current situation of the agricultural fields, with huge areas abandoned and dry.

 

 

 

Proposed situation of the agricultural fields, with an agroforestry system, compost boxes and intercropping

 

 

 

Photo 3. of the current situation at the agricultural fields

 

 

Photo impression 3. of the possible situation at the agricultural fields where chili is mixed with papaya, watermelon with guava. Hedges and trees are added to catch salt spray and to improve the soil. Water competition is limited through pruning of hedges and root cutting ditches.

 

3.7 Improvement of the swamp edge
strong>Problem elaboration
Several problems can be observed at the swamp edge and the swamp

Flooding of the swamp edge (up to 60 centimeters of water)

In former days there was a free flow of water from the village towards the swamp. The edge of the swamp was formed by forest and swamp taro fields closer to the houses in which movement of water was possible. Taro fields are prepared by excavating a plot and creating bunds around the plot. In this way the muddy circumstances are created to grow swamp taro. During rainy season the taro fields are filled with water and could overflow towards the swamp. There the water is stored and during dry seasons the water could slowly infiltrate. This situation has changed dramatically. The forest has been cut down for timber or fuel wood and the production of bananas became profitable. Inhabitants established banana fields at the former forest grounds. They needed to raise the soil by coconut husks, sawdust, waste, coral gravel and other materials to stabilize the wet soil. This raised ground became a block for the water flow. Nowadays, during heavy rain, there is up to 60 centimeters of standing water at the taro fields, creating mosquito breeding areas and loss of taro yield.

 

To tackle the problem of the flooding one drainage is recently constructed that connects the swamp with the lagoon. The discharge of this drain is about 2000 cubic meter per day. So the water level in the whole swamp is lowered with 4 millimeters per day. This is not outreaching during the rainy season and still water is stored in the swamp. Additional the taro fields are not connected to this drainage and cannot benefit from it.

 

Mosquito breeding places
The taro fields where water is standing during rainy periods results in enormous mosquito breeding places. There are no fishes to eat the mosquito larva. Drainage of the field is needed to avoid standing water.

 

Illegal waste dump and cutting of trees
Furthermore illegal waste dump and cutting and burning of more trees at the edge are decreasing the attractiveness and biodiversity of the swamp. Also the potential tourism and rainwater infiltration area is under danger. Additionally the waste dump is polluting the taro fields and the swamp

 

Former situation
North East Monsoon

 

Former situation
South West Monsoon

 

Current situation
North East Monsoon

 

Current situation
South West Monsoon

 

Cross section C – C’. Current situation of the swamp edge. Forest has been cut down and replaced by raised banana fields. Taro fields are adjacent to the houses. During the rainy south west monsoon water is blocked from flowing to the swamp.

 

Solution elaboration
Flooding and standing water must be solved and the swamp must become attractive again for tourism and ecosystem. Then also a healthy groundwater will develop. Based on discussion with inhabitants and swamp drainage design for other islands, a solution of four components is needed to solve those issues.

First, a ring of water around the core of the swamp is needed to store water, as a clear edge between the protected core and the agricultural edge and as a drainage of rainwater. Second, edge vegetation is added to improve biodiversity, to create a clear edge, as an economic potency for crops, timber and tourist attraction and to improve the water infiltration. Third, drainage is made to connect the taro fields with the ring water. Also the streets drainage can be attached to this drainage. Furthermore standing water will decrease and thus mosquito breeding. Finally the core of the swamp must be protected by law to protect ecosystem and to maintain tourism potency. This law protection is elaborated in paragraph ‘governmental policies’.

 

The ring water has a width of around fifteen meters. This is comparable with existing ponds. The depth must be around 1 meter. This is deep enough to avoid overgrowing of plants. A water body of this size can store 16,000 cubic meters of water extra, resulting in a decrease of water level in the swamp of 3 centimeter. The ring water is connected to an existing drain which drains water towards the lagoon. The excavated materials can be used to improve banana and taro fields. The edge vegetation consists of profitable species for the economy and environment. A mix of commercial swamp trees like pond apple, screw pine, bananas and coconut and ecological species like screw pine and coast hibiscus is used.

 

To avoid stagnation of water in the taro fields a connection must be made between the taro fields and the swamp. A natural drain that is dry during the north east monsoon and transporting water during south west monsoon is needed. The drains are located at the end of each road to make connection with street drainage and to make the drains accessible for management and maintenance.

 

A taro drainage design on the island of Gan on Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll functions as an example (Galagedara, 2008). There, farmers would like to have the water level at the soil surface and a maximum of 25 centimeters of water discharge a day is required. With this number it is calculated that 2000 cubic meter per day per drain must be transported and a drain of 2 meters wide is outreaching for the island of Hulhumeedhoo. A gate system as presented in Gan (Galagedara, 2008) is needed to make free flow of water between taro fields possible. With a gate the farmer can control the water level in his plot.

 

One potency can be exploited by creating tourists spots along the swamp. One nature tour through the swamp can be made and observation points or a view tower can be constructed as an excursion point. Investments of resorts are needed for this.
In this way taro yields can increase, floods are reduced and economical and ecological potencies will be utilized.

 

Species that provide fruits or nuts and can resist waterlogging. Coconut palms, dhiggaa and screw pine are natural swamp vegetation (Selvam, 2007)

 

Cross section D – D’ that show the taro fields with the proposed drainage. A drain is made that connects the taro fields with the swamp. A pipe line connects the taro fields to the drainage. In this way water can drain from the taro fields to the swamp during heavy rain.

 

 

Cross section E – E’ that shows the ringwater around the swamp. Vegetation is added to create a clear edge. This edge is an interesting tourist point. The drainage ends in this ringwater which is connected to the lagoon.

 

 

 

Current situation of the swamp edge, with taro field, banana plantages and the swamp

 

 

Proposed situation of the swamp edge with ringwater, edge vegetation and drainage. Also a tourism point is added.

 

 

Photo 4. that show the current swamp edge, on the edge between ferns and grasses. Left one can see new taro fields and banana fields.

 

 

 

Photo impression 4. that show the possibilities of the swamp edge. The image is from exactly the same point as the image of the left. Numerous opportunities can be met like the tourism point and profitable vegetation.

 

 

 

3.8 Coastal protection and development
Problem elaboration
A study of the whole coastline of Hulhumeedhoo have been done to find out where erosion occurs and where thick coastal vegetation is absence. Conclusive can be said that erosion can be observed everywhere (up to 30 centimeters a year according to inhabitants), but also some temporary accretion. On several parts the natural vegetation is gone causes stronger erosion at those places. Recently the coastal road has been shifted inland since parts where already at the coast line. It is likely that with a rising sea level the erosive speed will increase. Once the two meter high ocean coast is gone, the whole island will disappear. Protection of this higher coastline is essential.

 

Houses are built too close to the lagoon and natural vegetation is gone. During storms the houses face flooding and the lagoon coast is eroding, endangering the houses. Unfortunately there is not much building space left to reposition these houses.

 

To protect the higher coast from erosion two small floodwalls are constructed. These walls show already erosion furthermore inhabitants complain that there is no beach formed in front of the wall, though other recreational purposes are fine. During a discussion inhabitants agreed that a floodwall is not the best solution.

 

Analyses of coastal erosion for the island of Hulhumeedhoo. Around 80 cross sections and a photo panoramas have been made of the whole coastline of Hulhumeedhoo to identify coastal erosion. On the map is shown where erosion is observed and where thick coastal vegetation is still present. Also the beach material, sand or coral rock, are presented. On two parts of the island a floodwall have been constructed. On the next page four representative cross sections have been added.

 

 

 

Solution elaboration
Since the lagoon coast and the ocean coast are very different two design elaborations have been made, one for the lagoon coast and one for the ocean coast.

 

 

3.8.1 Lagoon coast design
To tackle some of these problems the Hulhudhoo island government has decided to extent the island in the lagoon to create more space for buildings, build a new harbor for the whole island, instead of two smaller ones, and to fill the muddy and dirty bay between the two existing harbors. For this idea two plans exist. A first development of a small harbor central on the island, elaborated by the Works Corporation Limited, will be constructed soon for 32 million Maldivian Rufiyaa (2 million Euro) (La Mer, 2011). The second development is the ambition of the government presented in the Addu Vision 2010-2025 (Addu City, 2010).

 

I think those two development options do not solve the significant issues, instead worsening them and they do not take climate change issues into account. In short they lack four important issues and all four will be clarified.

 

Wave problems during South West Monsoon storms
The two designs did not encounter storm swells during the SW Monsoon. Future predictions of Hay (Hay, 2006) show that storms might increase in future due to climate change. Those storms can damage breakwaters, qua walls and are the cause of current island erosion. This can already be observed in the current harbors of both Meedhoo and Hulhudhoo. However the design of the new harbor is comparable with the present harbors so comparable damage will be observed within fifteen years.

 

Disrupted longshore currents
The former reclamations for the Meedhoo and Hulhudhoo harbor have disrupted the longshore sediment processes. This has resulted in increased erosion at the ocean side of the island, bad water quality, loss of soft corals and mud deposition. Both proposed developments will enlarge those effects since they block again the longshore processes. With this new harbor development there is an opportunity to improve water quality by using a natural layout. Both proposals miss this opportunity.

 

Dead corners with bad water quality
In dead corners, areas with standing water instead of moving water, very bad water quality will occur. This already happens in the present Hulhudhoo harbor and Meedhoo harbor. Both proposed developments, especially the first development will create these dead corners and thus bad water quality.
Water stagnation and flooding at the current edge
Assumed is that the reclaimed land of the land use master plan will be climate proof, which means around 2 meters above present main sea level. The height difference between the reclaimed land and

 

Wave problems during SW monsoon

 

Disrupted longshore currents

 

Dead corners with bad water quality

 

Water stagnation and flooding at the current edge

 

 

the present island will lead to flooding of the current island during heavy rains (Riyaz and Park, 2010). This aspect is not taking into account in both proposals. In short there are four significant aspects not taking into account. Both proposals will worsen the current living quality instead of increasing it and climate change predictions are partly neglected. What if there is no money for realizing the full ambition of the land use plan? The island community is doomed with a smelly, dirty and unhealthy lagoon beach.

 

Instead I suggest a development of Hulhumeedhoo harbor in three phases, which can be developed as long as there is money available. The phases are that well designed they form a logical design on itself and are successful without finishing other phases. In this way a new healthy lagoon waterfront can be created that meets the future development demands from the island community, is climate change proof and improves the biodiversity and ecological values of the lagoon. Core aspects of the three phases are (1) soft engineering mangroves which can grow along with climate change predictions and are excellent wave breaks (Khazai et al., 2007); (2) floating jetties that allow longshore processes and water movement going on, and can move along with tides and sea level rise; (3) coastal vegetation to protect the island from
erosion (Khazai et al., 2007); and (4) a natural drainage between the new reclaimed island and the existing island to catch heavy rain water. The three phases are shortly described.

 

Phase 1
A harbor will be dug comparable with the size of the Works Corporation Limited’s design. However the harbor is located closer to the island (around 160 meters) so there will evolve a natural shape of the island, respecting the longshore processes. It is calculated that the excavated materials can be used to reclaim the land and to create a base for the mangroves. To improve the water quality, the existing Meedhoo harbor and Hulhudhoo harbor will be connected with the lagoon through a floating jetty. Also the north and south harbor front will exist of a floating jetty to allow water movement. Furthermore the island extension creates opportunities for a main square, which is not available on the island yet. This can be used for markets, events and for tourist activities. There is room for social housing and commercial buildings. Streets must be wide and planted with trees like presented earlier in this chapter. Along the current coast vegetation must be planted as a coastal protection. A depression between the new island and the existing one, functions as a wadi to store water during heavy rains and to create a visual boundary between old and new. A more detailed design of this phase is added on the next pages.

 

 

Development phase 1                             Development phase 2                         Development phase 3

 

strong>Phase 2
The harbor will be extended north and connected with the existing Meedhoo harbor. Also the mangroves will be extended to form a closed barrier and protect the harbor from strong south west storms. The coastal vegetation of phase one will become a green structures on the new island. The south part of the harbor remains the same.

strong>Phase 3
The harbor will be extended south. Hulhudhoo harbor will be connected with a channel with the new harbor and makes Hulhudhoo harbor a potential marina for small yachts. Mangroves will be enlarged as well as the island.
In this way a new harbor front is created that stops erosion, creates space for living, restores natural vegetation, gives opportunities for a future of sea level rise and creates a base for more economic activity and tourism.

 

 

Cross section F – F’. Above is the current situation presented. Below is the proposed harbour development presented with mangroves as storm break, a new harbour and reclaimed land. Note that the horizontal scale is varying at the proposed harbour.

 

 

Current situation lagoon coast where the coast is unprotected and the lagoon is muddy and smelly.

 

Elaboration of phase one of the lagoon coastal development. The muddy area is transformed in a protected climate proof island extension.

 

 

 

Photo 5. Current lagoon coastline during low tide.

 

 

 

Photo impression 5. Possible new village harbour front with palm trees to welcome tourists and a nice square for markets and events. The buildings around the square are four floors high to look over the square and the lagoon.

 

3.8.2 Ocean coast design
The ocean coast is facing severe erosion, up to 30 centimeters a year. Furthermore the coastal vegetation is very thin which will speed up erosion. At some places the coastal road is only a few meters away from the coast line. Inhabitants extract wood for fuel and timber and dump waste at the coastline. To tackle the problem two small floodwalls have been constructed three years ago. But wave damage of the walls can be observed already and inhabitants complain about the absence of a beach. So a floodwall seems not the right solution.

The workshop and discussions with action group members have resulted in an alternative that consists of three options; a basic solution, a preferable solution and an optimum solution.

 

The basic solution consists of the strengthening of the coastal vegetation with a mix of species that can resist salt spray and provide some goods for consumption like nuts and fruits. To create space for this so called bio-shield, on some places the coastal road must be relocated 10-20 meters inland. The road is a clear edge between the vegetation that is protected by law, the coastal vegetation, and the vegetation that is not, the forest.

 

 

The current floodwall at Hulhudhoo shows already severe damage three years after construction.

 

At strategic points a connection is made between the coastal road and the ocean. Strategic points are at crossings with connective roads or at interesting points for tourists like the remnants of the British defense system. In this way the beach becomes accessible and attractive for tourists. Therefore the beach and coastal zone should be clean from waste.

 

The preferable solution adds the construction of a so called breakwater to the basic solution. A breakwater is an offshore construction that breaks waves and absorbs wave energy. Breakwaters help forming beaches, are a foundation for coral growth and rich marine life (Airoldi et al., 2005), and creates a calm water zone excellent for swimming (Khazai et al., 2007). The drawback is the higher costs compared to revetments or floodwalls. The breakwater will be outreaching for stopping the erosive waves.

 

Within the optimum solution the breakwater as presented in the preferable solution is dimensioned to protect against tsunamis. The 2004 tsunami was not so destructive on the island of Hulhumeedhoo but tsunamis are the biggest fear of the island community. However costs and required materials are high as well as the impact on the natural beauty and ecosystem of the island.

 

Note that the design of the breakwater is an indication. If the breakwater is wrong designed it will lead to more erosion instead of less. Help of a coastal engineer is needed to design the exact breakwater.

 

The preferable solution is elaborated in detail.

 

 

On places where vegetation is gone, fast erosion can be observed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The basic solution
[one_third_last]

It consists of strengthening the coastal vegetation and create beach access at strategic points.

 

The preferable solution
Additional to the coastal vegetation, breakwaters will be constructed. In this way new beach is formed. The channels are widened to have materials to build the breakwaters. The preferable solution is elaborated on the next pages.

 

The optimum solution
The breakwaters will be enlarged to form tsunami protection to the island. In this version the breakwaters are up to four meters high.

 

Coastal vegetation
The ocean coast is not suitable for mangroves. Therefore the vegetation must be a mix of salt resistant and dense rooting species to form a bio-shield. Additional criteria for species are indigenous species, appealing and providing some goods like fruits and nuts. The roots hold sand together and in this way reduce the erosive speed. Unfortunately a bio-shield cannot totally stop erosion since they do not reduce wave energy like mangroves (Khazai et al., 2007).

 

strong>Beach access
At this moment there are too much roads that lead to the beach, resulting in huge gaps in the vegetation. Beach access will only be at strategic points; e.g. crossings with connective roads and attractive tourist point. The beach access must be 6 to 9 meters wide. At each side well appreciated Moonimaa trees (pagoda gum tree, mimusops elengi) are planted to provide shade. This creates a nice micro climate for the community and tourists. The edge of the coast is provided with concrete stairs towards the beach over the full width of the beach access. These stairs are the coastal protecting of the beach access.

 

Type of breakwater
There are many different kinds of breakwaters. For the island of Hulhumeedhoo a detached, segmented and low crested breakwater seems the right type. Detached means without connection to the island to preserve longshore processes and avoid coastal erosion of adjacent beaches. The breakwater will be segmented to allow sediments moving in the calm water zone and to allow refreshment of water. Finally the breakwater will be low crested, so the experience of the ocean will not be disturbed. The breakwater is designed as emerged, but regarding a rising sea level it will be submerged in future (Takahashi and Kenkyujo, 1996).

 

Breakwater location and dimensions
For the design of the breakwater rule of thumps presented in principles of sedimentation and erosion engineering in rivers, estuaries and coastal seas (van Rijn, 2005) and design of low crested (submerged) structures, an overview (Pilarczyk, 2003) are used. Furthermore a comparable breakwater design for Raccoon island breakwaters in Louisiana, USA is used as a reference (Armbruster, 1999, Stone et al., 1999).

The breakwater will be positioned on the edge between the sea grass beds and the outer reef flat. In this way corals are not disturbed and the breakwater can become part of the reef structure. To avoid a tombolo to form, a sandbank that attached the breakwater to the island that blocks longshore processes, the length of the breakwater should be 1.5 times the distance to the original shoreline. This is big enough to form a salient, a beach behind the breakwater. The length of the gaps in between the breakwaters should be less as 0.8 of the distance to the original shoreline to prevent shoreline erosion. The breakwater will be positioned opposite the beach access to increase the feeling of safety and to form beach directly in front of beach access. The breakwaters as presented in the concept are designed according to these rules.

 

 

 

The breakwater will have a crest height of 2 meters. This is 1 meter above high tide and will slowly submerge during sea level rise. The crest is 3 meters wide. This is wide enough for reef fishermen to stand on, provides a fundament for a future tsunami-proof breakwater and is needed to remain its function during strong sea level rise. The side slopes are 3:1.

 

Breakwater materials
(Concrete) rocks up to 1000 kg are needed to build the break water. Therefore coral stones and sand are needed. Using stones and sand from (around) the island will annul the positive effect of the breakwater and importing the materials would be very expensive and produces a lot of carbon dioxide. Widening the existing canals would solve more problems at once. It has been calculated that widening the two canals with 75 meters would provide enough coral rocks, stones and sand to construct the breakwaters. Furthermore the wider canals would improve the sediment movement and improves the water quality of the lagoon. This is very beneficial for the resort and they might bear the costs for the construction partly. Additional the materials are natural so new corals can grow on the side slopes of the breakwater and it provides shelter for sea animals to improve natural resilience.

A design as such will reduce wave energy of about 70% behind the breakwater and 50% in the gaps, as shown in the Raccoon island example. Together with the bio-shield there is a huge chance of stopping the coastal erosion. Furthermore an attractive recreational zone in between the breakwater and the shoreline and an ecological zone of high value outside the breakwater are created. A very attractive coast resilient to sea level rise is the result.

 

 

Cross sections G – G’ of the current coast (above) and the designed coast (below) of the preferable solution.

 

 

Current ocean coastline during high tide. The coastal road is close to the ocean and huge gaps are present in the vegetation. Waves have a direct impact on the coast.

 

 

 

Proposed design for the ocean coastline. The coastal road is shifted further inland to make space for a thick coastal vegetation. Waves are blocked by a breakwater. The gaps in the breakwater are there to maintain water quality and to create a calm water zone behind the breakwater, safe for swimming.

 

 

Photo 6 of the current situation. Huge gaps in the vegetation are a cause of coastal erosion.

 

 

 

Photo impression 6 of the possible future situation where a thick coastal vegetation and the breakwater are protecting the beach. Waste is gone and Moonima trees provide shadow. The beach has become a pleasant area for inhabitants to recreate after a day of work.

 

 

 

Photo 7 of the current situation is showing severe erosion of the coast and again huge gaps in the vegetation. It is an unattractive beach, especially for tourists.

 

 

Photo impression 7 of the preferable solution shows the breakwater in the front, which is located on the edge of the living corals. New corals will grow on the breakwater resulting in a rich marine life. Because of the breakwater a new beach is formed, attractive for touristic day visitors.

 

 

3.9 Establishment of a tree nursery
Problem elaboration

Extensive cutting of trees
Trees are owned by the government but inhabitants can request a tree for his own purpose. Although it is not allowed to cut down the tree, inhabitants do so. Especially at the coast and the swamp edge a lot of trees has been gone and not replaced. This is causing many problems. 

Burning of trees by farmers
Farmers burn trees to improve the soil and to create farmland. Instead of improving the soil the egrade the soil. A solution for this is given with the agroforestry system as presented in the improvement of farmland.

Deforestation
A lot of trees are cut down to create space for living or for farming. But the trees are important for the water management of the island, the microclimate and the ecosystem.

 

Ornamental tree nursery at Herathera resort

 

Solution elaboration
Trees are a core component of many ideas presented above. However there exists no nursery on the island to provide trees. Some farmers have small nurseries, mainly for growing seedlings of crops. With small investments a tree nursery can be set up that grows trees necessary in other plans and to reduce the deforestation.

Space for the tree nursery can be found at the bigger agricultural area behind the Shamshudeen School in Meedhoo. This is central located, easy accessible from the village and for farmers. It is also close to the coastline to plant the seedlings. The table on the next page shows which trees should be grown in a nursery. Detailed information about the propagation and management can be found in the reader trees and shrubs of Maldives (Selvam, 2007).

For growing the seedlings one can best use compost which can be derived as described earlier. Furthermore plastic bottles can be used as a pot to grow seedlings in. In this way nutrients are kept and transplantation to its final destination is easy. Finally school dropouts can
be trained to manage the nursery

 

 

Possible location for a tree nursery

 

Table 8.7. Overview of all tree and shrub species necessary for the above mentioned designs. The local Dhivehi name, the English name, the Latin name and the characteristics are given. All these species can be grown in a tree nursery till they are ready to be out planted (Selvam, 2007).

 

 

3.10 Development of a coral nursery and coral rehabilitation

 

Problem elaboration

Coral reefs are very important for the protection of waves, for a rich marine ecosystem and a healthy fish population and as a tourist attraction. But the reefs are damaged through storm swells, sand mining, oil of boats, collection of coral stones and dumping of waste and Hulhumeedhoo harbour constructions in the past. Furthermore increased water temperature through climate change causes coral bleaching, dying of corals. This all leads to the dying of reefs and thus dying of fish and loss of the tourist attraction.

 

Solution elaboration
A coral nursery and coral rehabilitation are very effective solutions, but very costly and time consuming and therefore difficult for a big scale. The focus for coral rehabilitation is on the lagoon side of the island to (1) make it accessible for tourists; (2) to have a higher change of success since wave energy is not as high as the ocean side; and (3) to create a sand beach at the lagoon side as shown by a test of Goreau and Hilbertz (2005).

A few aspects should be considered on forehand (Edwards, 2010, Edwards and Gomez, 2007).
– When there is no money or knowledge available on the maintenance of the rehabilitated reef, coral restoration does not make sense. Cooperation with experienced employees of Vilingili Shangri-la Resort and Spa is necessary to succeed.

 

– Research should discover the reason for the mortality of corals. Management of the area before restoration takes place is needed to remove these negative disturbances. If causes are unclear a pilot study must take place that monitors the survivorship of a small coral transplant.

 

– Coral rehabilitation must be part of a broader coastal management plan. Coastal management around Hulhumeedhoo is about growth of mangroves, enlarging of the canals, the relocation of sand mining activities, and the redesign of the natural island layout as shown in the other elaborations.

 

– It is clear that corals can grow in the lagoon area in front of Hulhumeedhoo, since some coral patches are present and soft corals have been growing in the past. However it should become clear what the quality, species richness and size of the former reefs were.

– Researches should determine if there are enough coral growing species present. If not transplants from a nursery are needed.

– Substrate forms the basis for coral growth. Unfortunately on the shallow waters of Hulhumeedhoo only sandy substrates with sea grass beds and some coral rocks are available. On the present rocks coral is already growing, but the sandy substrates are unsuitable for coral growth. Research must be done to find out the best substrate for coral growth. Concrete blocks or electrified iron wires are common substrates.

 

A coral nursery is the best way to grow transplants, since direct transplantation from other reefs often damages the mother reef. Three aspects are important for the location of the nursery (Edwards and Gomez, 2007)
– Water temperature comparable with transplantation location
– Good water quality. No area with disturbances
– Accessible. People and equipment are needed. Good accessibility is needed to work cost effective.
The area in front of Hera seems a very appropriate location for a coral nursery. By establishing the nursery and creating artificial reefs the natural protection of the island against waves increases, new beach will be formed, the fish population will increase and a very interesting tourist activity is set up, something which is not available in Addu Atoll at this moment.

 

 

 

 

 

Iron frame on which corals grow
(Goreau and Hilbertz, 2005)

 

 

 

 

 

Detail of a coral nursery (Edwards, 2010)

 

 

3.11 Governmental policies

Problem elaboration
Besides lack of awareness and money a proper land use plan, laws and law enforcement are missing. Also on the governmental level changes are needed to make the resilient island plan successful. Especially on the issues of sand mining, tree cutting and deforestation and biodiversity the government has an important role

 

Solution elaboration
At this moment some areas are protected by law but this is unclear for inhabitants and there is no enforcement. The result is overexploitation of trees, illegal sand mining and decrease of biodiversity. Protective areas should be set and awareness on the background of the laws should be created to get understanding. Also designated sand mining areas, farmland and areas with administered trees should be included in the land use plan, which are absent in current plans (Addu City, 2010).

 

Suggestions for the land use plan are given in the map. In this way law enforcement and spatial interventions as presented earlier are strengthening each other and improve the resilience of the island.

 

Law enforcement should take place by the police, but sign will help informing the inhabitants. Most important however is creating understanding by the awareness programs, described in section 3.2.

 

 

Signs that inform inhabitants about rules and regulations, in this case about waste dump.

 

 

Map of Hulhumeedhoo indicating which areas should be protected and which areas suitable for farming should be incorporated in the land use plan.

 

 

 

Epilogue

In total I have worked one year on the whole project; one year reading and learning about Maldives and two months living on these fragile tiny islands. It has made me falling in love. But it also makes me realize that under severe sea level rise, it will be difficult to survive.

I truly think that when the community and the government have the will to take care of their islands, like the way they love their children, the future of atoll island states will be an attractive one.

I have the hope that Hulhumeedhoo can become an island as presented in this report; where the higher ridges are secured and together with a reclaimed lagoon harbour form a safe place for living. The calm water where once was the swamp and the village will be a healthy place for fish farming, floating agriculture and crab farming. I am also sure that in this way an attractive environment remains that forms the base for tourism.

So far I would like to thank a few people. Special thanks to Ibrahim Mohamed of the Environmental Protection Agency in Male’ for his help. I am very grateful that he gave me the opportunity to work on this project and to help the community of Hulhumeedhoo.

Then there are some people in Maldives who I would like to thank. First I would like to thank Mohammed and Fatima with their children and Shiham and his wife and daughter for their care, hospitality and help. I wish you all the best for the future. Then thanks to Shaffaf and Shiham, the MEC and the employees of Hi-Energy with their help to organize the workshop in such a short time frame. Furthermore I would like to thank Milza, Nahida, Shiruhaan, Zameera and Zeeniya for their organizing and facilitating work. Without them we couldn’t conduct the workshop. Then the participants have made the resilient island workshop successful. Therefore I would like to thank Fathmath Nashath, Suaid Mohamed, Ibrahim Fairooz, Shamsiyya Waheed, Mohamed Khussan, Abdulla Waseem, Aishath Afrah, Mariyam Navaal, Thaarif Latheef, Rifath Abdulla, Asiya Naseem, Sadhuna Saeed, Afrooza Thagiyyu, Nazath Shafeeg, Kulsoom Mohamed Iameel, Safoora Ibrahim, Aminath Sharoona Moosa, Fareedha Moosa, Rahuma Zahir and Nadhiya Hassan.

Finally thanks to Sobe and Shahid and their Addu City Council for giving the support for the workshop. It is now up to you to realize the ideas presented in this report; in other words to realize the dreams and ideas from your community.

I am sure I will return to Hulhumeedhoo to see the people I started to love and to see with my own eyes how the community has improved their way of life. But they have to start with it today, to have a future tomorrow.

Best regards,

Pim Kupers

 

 

Text references

ADDU CITY 2010. Addu Land use Master Plan 2010-2025.

AIROLDI, L., ABBIATI, M., BECK, M., HAWKINS, S., JONSSON, P. R., MARTIN, D., MOSCHELLA, P., SUNDELOF, A., THOMPSON, R. & ABERG, P. 2005. An ecological perspective on the deployment and design of low-crested and other hard coastal defence structures. Coastal engineering, 52, 1073-1087.

ARMBRUSTER, C. K. 1999. Raccoon Island Breakwaters. Fifth Priority List Demonstration Project of the Coastal Wetland Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act.: Louisiana Department of Natural Resources Coastal Restoration Division,.

EDWARDS, A. J. & GOMEZ, E. D. 2007. Reef restoration concepts and guidelines: making sensible management choises in the face of uncertainty. Coral reef targeted research & capacity building for management programme. St Lucia.

EDWARDS, A. J. 2010. Reef rehabilitation manual. Coral reef targeted research & capacity building for management program. St Lucia.

ELEVITCH, C. R. & WILKINSON, K. M. 2000. Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, Holualoa, Hawaii, Permanent Agriculture Resources.

GALAGEDARA, L. W. 2008. TARO field water control, Gan Island, Republic of Maldives. Agricultural Engineering Consultant.

GOREAU, T. & HILBERTZ, W. 2005. Marine ecosystem restoration: costs and benefits for coral reefs. World Resource Review, 17, 375-409.

GOVERNMENT OF MALDIVES 2010. Solid Waste Management Project, Information Memorandum. HAY, J. 2006. Climate Risk Profile for the Maldives. Republic of the Maldives.

HUSAIN, M. 1976. The Rahla of Ibn Battuta – India, Maldive Islands and Ceylon – translation and commentary, Baroda, India, Oriental Institute.

KHAZAI, B., INGRAM, J. C. & SAAH, D. S. 2007. Protective Role of Natural and Engineered Defence Systems in Coastal Hazards. San Leandro: Spatial Informatics Group, LLC.

LA MER 2011. Environmental Impact Assessment Report Harbour Developments Works at Hulhumeedhoo, Addu City. Ministry of housing and environment,.

PILARCZYK, K. W. 2003. Design of low-crested (submerged) structures, an overview. COPEDEC, VI RIYAZ, M. & PARK, K. H. O. 2010. “Safer Island Concept” developed after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: a case study of Maldives. Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami, 4, 135-143.

SELVAM, V. 2007. Trees and shrubs of the Maldives, Bangkok, Thammada Press Co., Ltd.

STONE, G. W., WANG, P. & ARMBRUSTER, C. K. 1999. Unanticipated response to detached, segmented breakwater along Raccoon Island, Louisiana. Coastal Sediments.

TAKAHASHI, S. & KENKYUJO, U. Y. K. G. 1996. Design of vertical breakwaters, Port and Harbour Research Institute.

THAMAN, R. R. 1990. Kiribati agroforestry: Trees, people and the atoll environment. Atoll Research Bulletin, 333.

UNEP 2006. Maldives, post-tsunami environmental assessment. United Nations Environment Program.
VAN RIJN, L. C. 2005. Principles of sedimentation and erosion engineering in rivers, estuaries and coastal seas, AQUA publications.

 

Illustration references
All illustrations, maps, images and pictures are made and owned by Pim Kupers, except when indicated differently.

The background satellite image is owned by the GIS and Mapping Unit, Spatial planning section, Department of National Planning, Maldives